Human Cognition and System Design Essays

Human Cognition and System Design Essays Human Cognition and System Design Essay Human Cognition and System Design Essay Name: Lecturer: Course: Date: Human Cognition and System Design Introduction This paper will serve to analyze the Linux software application from a human information processing perspective. Primarily, the Linux software application is a computer operating system with a Unix-like design assembled from the open source and free software distribution and development. Originally developed to perform as an operating system for personal Intel x86 based computers (Dibris, 5). The software application has been ported to a wider variety of computer hardware platforms. The development of the Linux design is considered the most prominent example of open and free source collaboration of software. In this regard, this paper will hence focus the Linux software design and its consideration on human information processing capabilities, memory, perception, attention and learning. Memory The memory concept in this case implies the various ways through the user of the Linux software can interact or otherwise communicate with the computer system. Recognition is considered an easier strategy to use compared to recall when using the Linux software application. Regarding recognition, Linux offers the users with appropriate recognition stimuli. However, the application has been programmed with limited information as too much would divert the attention of the user or confuse them. The software application implements the use of programmed intelligence to provide appropriate stimuli for tackling the task presented by the user (Dibris, 7). The Linux software application is both a command line interface and a graphical user interface. The hard way of learning commands is through remembering them. Keying in commands the user had already typed on the previous or current console amounts to tedious or unnecessary effort. Instead of retyping a previous command, the software application offers a variety of options that save time for the user when remembering older commands used in current or earlier sessions. For example, the first option involves keying in the control key plus R prior to issuing the command. This acts by initiating the command re-caller through backward mode. This occurs with the most recent command being presented as the first. The user can now type part or the whole characters of the command he or she is searching. Once the command is found, the user is expected to hit the enter button and the command will be initiated. The Linux visual representation includes a pearl script that is capable of reading the traffic counters of the computer’s routers, and a fast program that creates presentable graphs representing the monitored network connection. In addition to its detailed view, the Linux software application is capable of creating traffic visual representations visited in the previous seven days, five weeks, or three months. This made possible from its ability to keep a log of the entire data from the router. Additionally, since the Linux software application of graphical user interface nature, it therefore represents programs, directions, and files through spatial relations and pictures. In the graphical user interface, the user has a simpler choice of choosing commands by manipulating or activating pictures –for example, dragging an icon or clicking on a button with the mouse device. The graphical user interface is intended to make the computer easier to use by simplifying decisions and tasks, and creating visual representations that the user can easily relate. A significant aspect of the Linux software application revolves around its ability of raising the user efficiency in user memory as well as usage over interfaces with text bases. The Linux software program not only utilizes chunking and encodes information; it also offers streamlined ways of finishing tasks taking into account the expectations and needs of the user. However, it is prudent to understand that the Linux software program fails to support its user’s in remembering how to use it in certain ways. This is manifested through its shortcut ability to identify previous or currently used commands. This is thought to induce a lazy culture to the user since he or she does not have to remember the main components of a command. The main challenge is however realized when entering a new command. Attention Computer systems using the Linux software application output their signals through actuators. With these displays, the system acts or reacts to the environment. Developments in software creation have enabled the user to process information from their auditory and visual senses. The Linux software application uses graphical programming language for the execution of many processing functions, sound generation and processing, and video. The timing of this software is versatile and can be communicated to other computers through a network. The graphical nature prompts the incorporation of visual user interface. Though it is good with its timing, its quality of being timeline based becomes a hindrance when the user is considering interactive structures (Hives, 8). Other authoring tools are also incorporated within the Linux software program. A high level for programming languages has a speeding effect on the development process and is a tradeoff in terms of flexibility. If the user deems that an application needs maximum flexibility, he or she can use low-level programming. The Linux software program is also user computer interface of high nature that involves multiple sense interactions, real time interaction and simulation, including visual, auditory and tactile. In addition, there are certain Linux software programs that use multimodal user interfaces that combine two or more human senses in their interaction with other computers (Hives, 14). The design of this program was achieved based on the needs of blind computer users. This was to enable them to control and perceive information in an effective and efficient way. However, research maintains that the audio user interface is not a particularly efficient interaction solution even it is the most used with blind computer users. The efficiency of the tactile user interface in accomplishing certain tasks is considered similar to the interface for audio senses. Perception The Linux interface helps its users understand the sensory information they receive in a number of ways. The Linux software program possesses a lot of information related to how it runs. The memory and hardware of the system, current processes and the user’s latest activity information is made available by the system. In many cases, the user can view the system information through specified commands (Z?agar, 25). A number of these commands are specifically written to give information. The rests of these commands are intended to alter the system to include ways of viewing the current state of the system. In certain cases, the user can understand the received sensory information through configuration files and system information. Majority of these files are in the form of plain text. This enables the user to view the basic commands that output the content of a file to the command line. Among the simplest commands designed for reading the information system is ‘arch’. This command gives back the computer’s architecture. A different set of commands give the user information relating to processes running within the system. One commonly used command process is ‘top’. This gives the user a continuous update on the process responsible for consuming the most memory space of the computer system. ‘Pstree’ is a command that gives the user a highlight of parent and child processes- meaning processes that start others. Ultimately, the Linux interface utilizes previous knowledge to enable the user understand the sensory information they receive. Among this is the collection of logs from experiences. Majority of these logs can be read using standard reading commands, but this is dependent on the distribution (Welsh, 18). In this case, some logs may be in the form of a specialized format and hence require reading with a special command. However, the Linux software program at times fails to support the perspective of perception. In this regard, the interface does not provide information on certain processes or the information itself is too complicated for the user to understand. Learning Linux interface has been designed to be user friendly and includes tips intended to help the user learn how to use the application. Similar to Microsoft windows, the Linux system files are arranged in a structure resembling the hierarchical directory format. Linux gives the user a graphical interface that gives them an easy time in understanding how to use it, and still allows those with the knowledge to change settings to a different user. Primarily, the interface allows the user to understand that everything in the system will henceforth be treated as a file (Welsh, 24). The user uses this file to make a drawing or write a text. The system lets the user understand that the written texts or drawings made will have to sorted and stored for easy location. Behind every configured option, there lie simplified readable text files the user can edit to their best suit. The current versions of the Linux interface are incorporated with graphical user interface to guide the user through the program. There is another option where the user can choose to gain full control of the program through manual adjustment of the configuration files. The design of the Linux interface is based on the premise that every person gaining access to the system has their personal username and password (Welsh, 45). Every single file has a source group and user and possesses certain attributes. In addition, the program provides the user with an opportunity of feeding it with a command to attain certain information. This enables the user to learn on a variety of processes associated with the interface. Conclusion The intensity of using Linux on laptops and standard desktop computers has been under constant rise in the recent past. The current versions include a graphical user environment. With regard to the objective of this paper, the major findings gave rise to the conclusion that Linux software program has been designed in the form of a user-friendly interface. In terms of human cognition to the design of the software, the paper was able to establish a positive view regarding the memory, attention, perception, and learning perspectives of the software program. However, one cannot overlook the hindrances associated with the shortcomings of the interface. Dibris, Dora. â€Å"Introduction to Linux Programming.† 2004 Tripoli Library Association. Greenspan Hotel, Tripoli. 29 March 2004. Hives, John G., Brian G. Brestan, and Ruth A. Dale. â€Å"Linux Software Program.† Human Cognitive Review 26.1 (2007): 1-16. Print. Michal, Pierce G., and Sarah Orsworth. â€Å"Technology and Human Cognitive Behavior: Review by a Group of Experts.† System Design 7.2 (2004): 121-30. Web. 11 Sep. 2012. Welsh, Matt, Matthias K. Dalheimer, and Lar Kaufman. Running Linux. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly, 2009. Print. Z?agar, Klemen, Janez Golob, and Anz?e Z?agar. â€Å"Efficient Access to Timing System’s Time in Linux User Mode.† Control Sheet. 9 (2010). Print.

Free Essays on Evolution Of Computers

When mainframe and minicomputers provided the backbone of business computing, there were essentially networked environments in the sense that "dumb" terminals shared access to a single processor (the minicomputer or mainframe), printer (or printers) and other peripheral devices. Files could be shared among users because they were stored on the same machine. Electrical and operational connections were available in common and shared applications, and implementation of new hardware, software and users was a simple task so long as a single vendor was used. With the proliferation of microcomputers in the business environment, information became distributed, located on the various hard drives attached to personal computers in an office, and difficult for other users to access. Today, network systems which connect disparate hardware, software and peripherals are commonplace, but the communication program which makes using these systems has not kept up with the demand for such environments, although a number of companies are now participating in the field. This research considers two of the most popular network operating systems (NOS), NetWare by Novell and Windows NT by Microsoft, and considers which is appropriate for business applications. Network Operating Systems Operating systems are the interface between individual programs and the user. Through the operating system, the user is able to name files, move them and otherwise manipulate them, and issue commands to the computer as to what the user wants to do. Network operating systems are similar to this, but exist (as the name implies) in the network environment. Thus a network operating system is used to issue commands to shared devices, and to provide a background against which scarce resources are divided among competing users. Ideally, the network operating system is transparent to the user, who is only aware of the ability to share information and resources. An efficient NOS can make... Free Essays on Evolution Of Computers Free Essays on Evolution Of Computers When mainframe and minicomputers provided the backbone of business computing, there were essentially networked environments in the sense that "dumb" terminals shared access to a single processor (the minicomputer or mainframe), printer (or printers) and other peripheral devices. Files could be shared among users because they were stored on the same machine. Electrical and operational connections were available in common and shared applications, and implementation of new hardware, software and users was a simple task so long as a single vendor was used. With the proliferation of microcomputers in the business environment, information became distributed, located on the various hard drives attached to personal computers in an office, and difficult for other users to access. Today, network systems which connect disparate hardware, software and peripherals are commonplace, but the communication program which makes using these systems has not kept up with the demand for such environments, although a number of companies are now participating in the field. This research considers two of the most popular network operating systems (NOS), NetWare by Novell and Windows NT by Microsoft, and considers which is appropriate for business applications. Network Operating Systems Operating systems are the interface between individual programs and the user. Through the operating system, the user is able to name files, move them and otherwise manipulate them, and issue commands to the computer as to what the user wants to do. Network operating systems are similar to this, but exist (as the name implies) in the network environment. Thus a network operating system is used to issue commands to shared devices, and to provide a background against which scarce resources are divided among competing users. Ideally, the network operating system is transparent to the user, who is only aware of the ability to share information and resources. An efficient NOS can make...

DEVELOPING AND MANAGING PERFORMANCE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

DEVELOPING AND MANAGING PERFORMANCE - Essay Example Building performance is not a day affair in business management; it is rather a value creation that should run throughout the existence of a business organization. This value creation must be evidenced in the way a manager handles performance in the workforce. Hence, the staff must be recognized and encouraged if a manager really wishes them to do their best in the workforce. Staff encouragement must be an ongoing process of overseeing performance throughout the year (‘Performance management’ 2012). Organizations should map out policies and strategies that will lead to the improvement of performance. The issue of performance in the workplace is multi-faceted because there are a lot of sub-issues in it. This includes issues of reward, compensation, giving out responsibility to the employees, creating conducive environment for learning and career advancement etc. In this paper, we will look at how overall performance in a workplace can be easily managed for good productivi ty. 1. How 2 key elements of the reward and development practices used either explicitly or implicitly in the case study organization could contribute to the overall performance of the organization – a critical evaluation. The case-study organization, Pentangelli’s, has two major elements in the creation of the performance policy in the organization, namely reward and development. ... The aspect of reward that could be given a considerable attention by Pentangelli’s is mainly internal since there is no visible sign of lack in external reward which is mainly monetary compensation (Ingram 2012). Because of this, the management of Pentangelli’s could have looked into the internal reward system which would have not only boosted the morale of the staff but also contributed intrinsically in the development and success of Pentangelli’s. Giving someone recognition and acknowledgement for a work done has the psychological power of increasing the effort of a person. Praise naturally will make a worker strive for perfection which can lead him to an overall effective performance (‘What is total reward’ 2006). Recognition can come in various forms. It can be in the form of recognizing the importance and talents of the workers by constantly engaging them in the day to day running of the business. Allowing the managers to take decisions independ ently is a motivation that is even better than monetary compensation (Schalkwijk 2013), and this is where Lucas, the second manager of Pentangelli’s, failed. His mistake was that he appointed one person, Jean, to run the 6 outlets of Pentangelli’s without giving consideration to time. As a human being, Jean was not to be expected to run the 6 business outlets, especially considering his approach towards the issues of management. As reported in the case study, he always insisted on detailed explanation of how the managers he appointed should look after the outlets. This certainly was counterproductive because time did not permit him to achieve this. This could be a reason why he suffered an accident

Riordan Virtual Organization, Concepts in Strategic Management and Essay

Riordan Virtual Organization, Concepts in Strategic Management and Business Policy, and Competitive Advantages Paper - Essay Example The changing and advancing technology compels Riordan Company to adopt  new strategy and business policies. The corporation should adopt a good strategic plan to achieve its goals and long-term performance. The evaluation and adoption of production expertise is a result of technological advancement (Hill & Jones, 2012). The evolving world economic market calls for companies to transform and adapt to the new environment. Strategic planning is necessary in accomplishing new changes. It lays a framework for business success and objectives. Riordan Company should set its priority and values for the company to realize its mission and goals in the industry. It should improve interaction to bring unity and teamwork that is the root of success. In addition, the company should align duties and priorities that can help in decision-making (Lawrie et al., 2005). Strategic plan focuses on making proper decision for the future. To develop a successful business plan, Riordan should have a well-developed strategy for achieving them. It should focus on the formation, implementation, evaluation and control measures. When doing a strategy planning, an environmental scan is essential. Environmental scan concentrates on factors that affect the company performance externally. Riordan Company being a leading producer in plastic manufacturing is facing environmental pressure from other company in China, USA and the global world. Environmental scanning focuses on economic forces, technology drives, change in government policy and socio-cultural force (Hill & Jones, 2012). The company should train its workers to impart in them the necessary practice skills. The move will also ensure that the workers are competent and well motivated. Environmental scanning takes place in the societal surroundings and industrial atmosphere. To compete with the outside environment, Riordan should lower their prices to attract potential

Keep Fit Essay Example for Free

Keep Fit Essay To keep fit and healthy, follow a healthy and balanced diet everyday. Make sure that your everyday diet includes lots of fruits, vegetables, and protein. You should cut down on red meat, junk foods, caffeine, and sugar intake. Avoid soft drinks or canned fruit juices. Instead, opt for a variety of fresh fruits, vegetable salads, freshly made fruit juices, milk, nutritious energy drinks, etc. You need to be more active in order to keep fit and healthy. Modern life has become very sedentary, with fewer scopes for physical activities. You need to exercise in order to burn those calories. Minimum physical activity slows down your metabolism rate. So, you can put on weight even when you eat less. On the other hand, exercise and a more active life will burn up the calories, even when you eat a little more. You can simply go for a brisk walk, or jog, or you can join a gym. The important thing is that you must include some physical exercise in your everyday life, because fitness and health cannot be achieved without some physical exercise. For a healthy life sufficient sleep is important. Lack of sleep can make you feel tired the next day. So work hard, but make sure that you have enough sleep; so that your body gets the time to replenish itself. Do not skip your breakfast, no matter how busy you are. Breakfast is the first and most important meal of the day. It works as a fuel for your body and keeps you going for the rest of day. If you skip breakfast, you will feel hungrier in the latter part of the day, and you may end up eating more! So, you may run a risk of gaining weight, if you skip your breakfast frequently. If you are not a healthy eater and find it difficult to improve your food habits due to busy, erratic, work schedules, then you may be depriving your body of the essential nutrients that are important for good health. In the long run, unhealthy food habits can lead you to serious health hazards. An easy solution to this problem is to include multi-vitamin supplements in your daily food intake. Multi-vitamins can be taken to replenish the nutritional deficiencies in your daily diet.

Summary of Where are you going where have you been? by Joyce Carol Oate

Fallen Angel We all have been there. After a long days work, all we are thinking about is getting home. As you head towards your car, you notice the darkness around you and suddenly feel that you are not alone. Your pace increases and you begin to sweat mildly. If you could just get there, you’d be safe. Suddenly, you hear a noise and decide the best thing for you to do is ignore it. As you approach you car and unlock it, you sigh with relief that you’ve finally have made it. For many, our minds play tricks on us when we feel a moment of fear, however for others it may turn out to be their worst nightmare. In the story, â€Å"Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?† by Joyce Carol Oates, a young girl is forced to make a decision that will change her life forever when she is confronted by a man obsessed with her beauty. In the beginning, the author introduces Connie, a 15-year-old teenager, who is a self-centered girl that believes beauty is everything. Her mother however, does not see her for her beauty, but for her lack of ambition. She constantly compares her to her olde...

How to have a relationship Essay

A relationship is a way of connecting. The connection could be between people or objects. Listening to my grandmother talk about relationships helped me understand how things have completely changed over times. My grandmother stated that relationships where more valued back then and people stayed together for all the right reasons. She informed me that when you loved someone you loved them like no other. When it came to marriage they lasted longer than they do now. Having a relationship with someone was the thing to do. At one time relationships actually had meaning people were with each other because they loved them. This showed me the commitment part of relationships, when people actually stayed faithful to the person they were with. Nowadays men and woman say I love you just for the fun of it. But be honest everyone you know or knew either ant’s a relationship, has a relationship or has played a role in one either as the main lover or the sideline. Relationships are complicated, complex commitments that we take seriously or play around with like a rag doll. Serious relationships start from the mind knowing what it is that you want how you want it and how you’re going to get it is the first step in committing to a relationship. Yes commitment can be very hard to do. Especially when were accustomed to doing things our own way; without having to answer to someone else. Understanding the person you are trying to commit to is a good way to start a serious relationship. It is important to gather as much information as possible and take as much time as needed to ensure that you know the person that you are in a relationship with. Taking the steps and looking at past relationships can help you understand if the relationship might be what you are looking for in life. It is true that no matter how long you have known a person you may never truly know who that person really is. It is also important to know what we want before committing ourselves in. Whether that relationship is a marriage or just a boyfriend/ girlfriend committing to someone should begin with feelings being involved. Relationships become complicated when you have disagreements, other people etc. I feel that it takes two to make a relationship work and if both parties are not commented then it will never work. It’s like the eighty-twenty rule which explains that one person is giving there all and all and the other person only gives what is necessary at that time. How can a relationship work if both parties are not on the same level and are not committed to each other? Complicating in relationships come from problems that we cause ourselves, from not committing or giving our all to the relationship. As for myself I’ve had a few relationships in my day. Some good ones and then some that I would give anything to take back and wish that I had never committed myself to. Not saying that you would have the same outcome as I did but just make sure that the love is real. If we go into a relationship knowing that we are not there for a long time then it makes the relationship less complicated. In these type situations just make sure that you inform the person with how you feel before going into the relationship. It is important to have a clean understanding of what each party wants. Having false feelings in a relationship can be the most hurtful thing when you actually find out so therefore try to avoid coming into these situations. Communication is a huge part of a serious successful relationship. Communicating with your partner is a very good stress reliever and understanding method. Having communication builds trust and loyalty, which are two other things that are very important in a relationship. When a person is in a relationship they expect their partner to be understanding, have good listening skills and be there when they need you. Sometimes it’s just best to sit back and listen to what the other person had to say. You never know what you might learn about your partner if you just listen. Always remember to keep the lines of communication open throughout the relationship. For me, I think that one of my biggest downfalls in previous relationships is the lack of communication between my partner and me. I also have problems with my partner not being able to support himself and maybe even helping me every now and then, don’t get me wrong I’m not asking him to take care of me in no means what so ever but help every now and then would be good. As I did research on the topic of relationships, I learned that there are several steps that can be taken to have a successful relationship. First it is important to ensure that you trust your partner. Does your partner’s communication lift you just to bring you right back down? How do you and your partner deal with conflict in your relationship? Do you have compatible financial values? When you are thinking about starting a new relationship think about some of these questions. They might help you to understand the relationship better and if that’s what you really want. Maintaining a trusting and lasting relationship is going to require some work on both sides and especially in these times. As long as there is trust and communication between both parties then there is a good chance that the relationship will work. I plan to take my time and know the person that I intend to be in a serious relationship with. I don’t want to hurt anyone and I definitely don’t want to be hurt. I look forward to finding love one day that is meaningful and lasting but until then I will continue to inform my partner how I feel and what I am looking for in the beginning. I will ensure the line of communication stays open.

An Artwork of Modern Realism Essay

Edward Hopper’s painting called ‘Portrait of Orleans’ pictures the town of Orleans back in 1950. The painting shows the point of intersection of a town road at daytime, with the viewer standing a little to the right in the middle part of the road. There are buildings on the further right side of the viewer, and a section of foreboding trees on the left side, which extends to the further end and curves backward to the right, straight to the area of buildings. Main Body The seven formal elements of art design are the following: (1) line, (2) shape, (3) form, (4) space, (5) texture, (6) light, and (7) color (School of Art, Design and Art History n. d. ). Going over Hopper’s Portrait of Orleans, we analyze it based on these seven elements: Line. Hopper’s painting is filled with either vertical lines or two congruent lines that converge at the middle to form a sort of triangle, which lead the eye upward to space (a cloudless sky). Curves were used to lead the eyes to the motion aimed by the painter. The curve of the looming trees, for example, extends vertically to the end and then curves backward to arrive at the right side of the road where the buildings are. From there, the horizontal lines of the road lead the eye to the right to extend beyond the picture. Shape. Shapes that were used were usually squares, circles, rectangles, and triangles. The shapes were usually connected through the use of perpendicular angles and right angles that lead one shape to the next. In the trees, for example, angles lead the eye from the rectangular trunk to the circular leaves above the trunk. Form. There are forms in the 2-dimensional items in the painting, as it creates depth, width, and height. The circular forms in the trees accentuate the form by using the right shade that darkens as the color progresses to the bottom. This creates depth, width, and height, which is emphasized also by the shadows that the looming trees are projecting. Space. The use of space is more apparent on the nearer portion of the intersecting road as well as the cloudless sky. Space gives huge impression on a painting, such as this one by Hopper. Because of the huge amount of space, it projects a feeling of isolation on the side of the viewer†¦ quietness, stillness, and a little of the feeling of alienation. Texture. Texture contrasts from the rougher ones on the trees, roofs, and tires to the smoother ones on the buildings, road post, and traffic light. Texture, together with shades and use of color, gives an added depth that makes the picture more realistic. This can be seen in Hopper’s painting, wherein texture makes the viewer feel the reality attached to the scene. Light. Light here was used basically to give emphasis to other elements like texture, shape, and form. It was also used to exaggerate the mood, as it gives a more isolated projection by emphasizing empty space, which cannot be made possible with the use of a dimmer light. The effect of the scene cannot also be made possible proper use of light. Color. The type of colors that was used here can be described as light, luminous, and realistic. The harmony does not develop a mood that is heavy, although it does not develop one that is happy and gay either. The use of colors (e. g. , tangerine), as well as the other elements, forms a sort of mysterious aura, creating a sort of tension on the side of the viewer. Conclusion Arthur McDowall wrote in 1918: â€Å"At the bottom of realism, in all its variations, seems to be the sense of actual existence; an acute awareness of it, and a vision of things under that form† (3). The ‘Portrait of Orleans’ is nothing different from this: it is art applied for a sense of existence, with a vision of how reality appears in mystery, tension, and motion. Appendix: Edward Hopper’s Portrait of Orleans (1950), available at Works Cited McDowall, Arthur. Realism: A Study in Art and Thought. London: Constable, 1918. Portrait of Orleans. 2008. Allposters. com. 21 May 2008 . School of Art, Design and Art History. ART BASICS: The 7 Formal Elements of Art Design. N. d. San Diego State University. 21 May 2008 .

Risk and Safety Management The WritePass Journal

Risk and Safety Management INTRODUCTION Risk and Safety Management INTRODUCTIONHS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM MODELSRESERACH EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEMBARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEMCASE STUDY OF MY EXPERIENCE IN THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEMRESULTS OF EXPERIENCECONCLUSIONREFERENCESRelated INTRODUCTION The idea of occupational health and management systems is rather complex and several definitions exist. The debate about OSHMSs is evident that there is no universal knowledge of the concept of occupational health and safety management. Rather there exist many models and approaches which are frequently merely sub elements regarded as complete management systems. Although the fundamental objective is to improve the health and safety of employees, at a more indebt level, one can find a variety, for example by using prevention as a fundamental company objective, by projecting the employer’s responsibility or by improving the employees’ participation and their representatives. Occupational Health and Safety management system can be defined as   a set of harmonized and incorporated processes, that allows a business or organisation to be able to control and manage their occupational health and safety issues in a homogeneous, orderly and effective way. It also enables organisations to comply with the requirements of legislation and also to initiate current best practice. Because it uses a systems approach, it helps guarantee’s a reliable and systematic approach to health and safety management throughout an organisation. Implementing this type of system is an indication that an organisation is taking a coordinated approach to the prevention of occupational health and safety risks. It is a choice that explicitly sets out to:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Improve an institutions responsiveness and performance in OSH   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   purge or reduce health and safety failures   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   predict change   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ensure overall uniformity with other management policies   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Contribute to improving the Company’s image. HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM MODELS There are two recommended approaches depending on the organisational needs of the business and with the objective that the approach will be integrated into the total management system.   One is based on successful health and safety management HS (G) 65. Another model is OHSAS 18001, the international standard for health and safety management systems. The international standard recognises HS (G) 65 and uses essentially identical principles. Both models are very similar with some minor differences. Effective health and safety management systems should have clear processes to follow, such as clear directives that describes who does what and when. Effective health and safety management systems should also have Control Forms in place that are used to control the important steps in the process. These should be simple, clear and easy to use as they will, when concluded, records that are necessary for the continues effectiveness of the management system. Some of the basic components of an effective management system are thus: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   developing a sound policy, 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     organising, 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   developing procedures, 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   monitoring performance and 5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reviewing the effectiveness of the management system. The various models of management systems standards are in effect establish on the same values of management as those of general management. Management systems based on OHSAS 18001, AS 4801-2000 and ISO 14001 are   prescriptive than others that are base on HSG65 and, to a great extent, ILO-OSH 2001, which base greater concern to the responsibility of people in the management of occupational health and safety risks.    RESERACH EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Some research has been carried out to assess the effectiveness of Occupational health and safety management systems. Frick et al. (2000:2) pointed out that the lack of critical assessment is astonishing despite the fact that: ‘OHSM has evolved internationally as the major strategy to reduce the serious social and economic problem of ill-health at work’. On the other hand, there are some researches that base their findings on the effectiveness of OHSMS, and which will be grouped as the ‘effectiveness research’. The first (effectiveness research) is a project started in the late 1970s, by researchers at the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in the USA to look at the different characteristics of companies with outstanding health and safety performance. In the first two stages of the research, matched pair comparisons were undertaken of safety programme practices in companies with high and low injury rates (Cohen et al., 1975; Smith et al., 1978). The third stage of the research looked at the health and safety programmes of five companies with commendable health and safety performance (Cohen Cleveland, 1983). Some sensitive issues were identified in the NIOSH research and other research linking the practise of health and safety management with injury result data (Simonds Shafai-Sahrai, 1977; Viner et al., 1989; Gallagher, 1994; Zohar, 1980; Chew, 1988; Shannon et al., 1996; Simard Marchand, 1995; Eyssen et al., 1980). Research findings of the studies suggest the fundamental and critical role played by senior management employees (managers) in successful health and safety management systems, the role of effective communication, employee participation and consultation in the whole process. Another research conducted in the nuclear industry have identified further conditions for the effectiveness of health and safety management systems. Marcus’ (1988:251) research of externally induced health and safety innovations in nuclear power companies following an incident (Three Mile Island incident) found autonomy to be a fundamental factor for the effectiveness of Health and safety management system. Nichols and Marcus (1990) in their research emphasize the eventual negative impact of the lack of management attention from vital production and safety requirements. There are some factors that stand against the adoption of effective health and safety management systems. These include: -the difficulties faced by small firms, -subcontracting arrangements, and -contemporary labour market changes. Research conducted in Australia by Gallagher (2000) was based on the relationship between OHS type and system performance. This is the only major empirical research of health and safety management system effectiveness in Australian industry. Research evidence was collected in the mid 1990s from some twenty organisations that had implemented an occupational health and management systems. The systems in these organisations were grouped according to Gallagher’s cross typology based on management structure/style and control strategy. Performance was then evaluated using three criteria Incident/claims trends, -changes in performance relative to industry benchmarks, and An assessment through an audit tool based upon Safety MAP. The research findings suggest the type of occupational health and safety management system may influence its effectiveness or failure. There was a tendency for innovative/safe place enterprises (adaptive hazard managers) to perform better than traditional/safe person enterprises (unsafe act minimisers). Adaptive hazard managers stand out from the remainder by the vigour of their focus on elimination of hazard as the underlying purpose of their system activity. They had an organised approach to the management of hazard for the full spectrum of hazards, in contrast to other cases where systems activity variously had an underlying risk management or cultural change purpose, or appeared to be base at improving the health and safety system as an end in itself. Gallagher’s findings strengthen the results of the various ‘effectiveness’ research that highlight the important role played by top managers and of employee participation and engagement ‘’That the most senior managers should drive health and safety change and that health and safety representatives should move away from the margins of health and safety management, into more mainstream health and safety management planning, implementation and review.’’ In his analysis of the Esso gas plant disaster, Hopkins’ (2000) provides a thorough case study of how lack of management commitment can cause a system to fail in practice. Esso had its own occupational health and safety management in place called Operational Integrity Management System (OIMS), once complemented by many as an ideal system and one which company audits suggested was operating at peak level. Reviewing material from the Longford Royal Commission, Hopkins identifies a number of failures in the Esso system that directly contributed to the disaster: 1)   Defective auditing processes, 2) Failure to adequately identify hazards and assess risks, 3) A hands-off management strategy, 4) Absence of procedures to deal with the immediate set of incidents, 5) Inadequate training, 6) Poor communication mechanisms 7) Inadequate hazard reporting system. All the above can in a sense be seen as some of the barriers to the effectiveness of an occupational health and safety management system. Hopkins (2000:147) on the other hand challenges the critics of Occupational health and safety management systems who argue that the Esso disaster discredits the idea of an OHS management system and points instead to the need for ‘organisational mindfulness’, an idea said to account for the reliability of high reliability organisations. Hopkins suggests that mindfulness can strengthen an OHSMS by highlighting the aspects of health and safety management that are essential for high reliability. A further research by Dell (2000) was out to identify the conditions of an effective OHSMS and the needed interventions to ensure the systems characteristics are well understood and applicable to industry. Dell draws the differences between proactive and reactive systems, the later marked by reactive activity following an incident; the former by proactive hazard management linked to quality and continuous improvement philosophy. Of the fifteen companies assessed, more than half have no management focus on health and safety and high levels of legislative non-compliance and no fundamental system in place.   Of the remaining companies with some sort of system in place, the systems are mainly reactive in nature with no indication of proactive logical hazard or risk management activity. System performance remains difficult to separate given these sub-optimal conditions. BARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The evidence from research suggests that Occupational Health and Safety management systems are likely to fail because of the following reasons: 1).The inability to meet primary conditions for Occupational health and management systems effectiveness (by not customising systems to organisational needs, imposition without consultation, relax top management commitment and non-employee involvement). 2).The inapt utilisation of audit tools (where they become an end in themselves, are base on misdirected management goals, and are conducted without any expert auditor skills, standards and criteria). 3). Application of the system in hostile contexts (small business, precarious employment, contractors and labour hire companies). CASE STUDY OF MY EXPERIENCE IN THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM These case studies are base on my experience on a review which was undertaken by ASHMAN ASSOCIATES LTD CAMEROON between 2001 and 2009. These studies include: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A review of occupational health and safety management systems used within the Cameroonian chicken processing industry. 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An evaluation of injury prevention within a large governmental department with multiple locations across Cameroon. 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The development of a strategic plan for injury prevention within a large governmental departmental involved in the running of detention centres. 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The approach towards injury prevention with the Douala reference hospital 5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A manufacturing company involved with the making and distribution of textiles. Each of these case studies involved an objective of assessing the effectiveness of the occupational health and safety systems for developing an injury prevention model suitable for the culture and hazards associated with the respective workplaces. Each project primarily involved the following methodology: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A review of the workplace’s injury history for the previous three to six years and identification of the primary types of injuries as well as their location and causal agents. 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A review of incident reports and safety committee minutes, as well as consultation with key stakeholders in identifying the variety of hazards that is evident within the respective workplace. 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A series of walk-through inspections and audits of targeted areas within the workplaces. 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Technical assessments based on a risk management approach for identifying hazards, with assessing based on legislative and best practice models, and development of appropriate risk controls. 5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maintaining consultation with the stakeholders throughout the risk assessment approach and monitoring the adoption and evaluation of recommendations. 6)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Integrating the results of the risk assessments into a range of appropriate business plans relevant for the size and scope of issues managed in the business. 7)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Debriefing the senior management of the organisation on the major findings and recommendations. 8)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Developing key performance indicators, in consultation with the stakeholder groups, to ensure an approach of ongoing implementation and continuous improvement with respect to addressing injury prevention in the workplace. RESULTS OF EXPERIENCE On the basis of the research conducted in these workplaces, a range of business imperatives were clearly identified within those companies which were successful in addressing occupational health risks. The key imperatives were as follows: 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Management commitment and active participation 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Participation of the employees 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Setting of goals and measuring performance 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Integration of Occupational health and safety strategies into business plan 5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Positive feedback and recognition of achievements. The commitment of senior management and their participation in the prevention systems was vital. The direct involvement and commitment of the senior management was the major determinant within specific workplaces as to the level of improvement and sustained performance in injury management. Without their commitment and participation, the prevention appeared to achieve a ‘glass ceiling’ above which the performance appeared not to improve. This was particularly evident where responsibility for OHS management was delegated to a ‘middle level’ manager, in particular those with non-operational responsibilities, such as human resource managers or OHS officers. The successful integration of OHS with other management systems will ensure that the long term objectives of the organisation incorporate a desire to develop OHS initiatives through each stage of the design and development process. It is evident from these case studies that the five basic imperatives outlined should be key components of a system which will produce a sustained focus on injury prevention. Many of the OHS management systems available on the market were found to be too complex and too time consuming and costly to implement and maintain for the majority of the businesses assessed. However, the requirement of at least a simple system which contains these key imperatives would seem a sensible starting place for organisations contemplating a programme focusing on injury prevention at the workplace level. CONCLUSION Implicit in many of the research reviewed above to show the effectiveness of Occupational Health and Safety management system is the finding that OHSMS sometimes work under the appropriate conditions. It also alludes to the significant importance of top management commitment and employee involvement in the whole process. A general agreement also emerged that the effectiveness of Occupational health and safety management systems depends on concrete top management commitment and employee involment which were relentlessly described as essential and inter-linked. Top management commitment is regarded as a pre-requisite for embarking on a systems approach in the first place. Without this whole concept of top management commitment, an OHS management system cannot be effective or is likely to collapse into a token exercise. Employee consultation and Involvement was also considered equally important to its effectiveness.    REFERENCES Cohen, A., Smith, B., Cohen, A. (1975) Safety Program Practices in High vs. Low Accident Rate Companies An Interim Report, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, Publication No 75-185, Cincinatti. Cohen, H., Cleveland, R. (1983) Safety Program Practices in Record-Holding Plants, Professional Safety, March, 26-32. Dell, G. (2000) Current Safety Management Practice: Does a Systematic Approach Deliver? Paper presented at the First National Conference on Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems, UWS, Sydney. K. Frick P. Jensen M. Quinlan T. Wilthagen (Eds.) Systematic OHS Management: Perspectives on an International Development, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Gallagher, C. (1997) Health and Safety Management Systems: An Analysis of System Types and Effectiveness, National Key Centre in Industrial Relations, Monash University, Melbourne Gunningham, N., Johnstone, R. (1999) Regulating Workplace Safety: System and Sanctions, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Health and Safety Executive (1991) Successful Health and Safety Management, HMSO, London. Hopkins, A. (2000) Lessons from Longford: The Esso Gas Plant Explosion, CCH Australia Limited, Sydney.

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